Articles

Considering that the bulk of domestic and foreign literature is devoted to reforms in the field of state administration, the creation of regular army and navy, and much less attention is paid to the analysis of the evolution of the agricultural sector of Russia during Peter the Great period and the impact of reforms on this — the most important at that time — sector of the economy, this work aims to contribute to overcoming the said limitation. The article traces the changes in the agricultural sector caused by the reform activity of Peter the Great. It is proposed to divide all the consequences of his reforms into two major groups: intentional consequences, that is, originally conceived by the reformer, and unintended ones, which were side effects of the reforms carried out by the government. Traditionally, Peter's agricultural initiatives are considered either in chronological order or on an industry-by-industry basis. In this article, it is proposed to consider them from the point of view of the tasks that these innovations were designed to solve. It is shown that most of the innovations initiated by Peter were caused either by the increased demand for raw materials and food from industry and new cities or were solving problems related to the on-going wars and therefore were mostly of a shortterm nature. Also in the article, from the point of view of modernization theory, the institutional consequences of Peter the Great's reform activities for agriculture in the Russian Empire are considered. It is shown that institutional reforms had long-term unintended consequences and formed an institutional framework that was not completely destroyed even by the abolition of serfdom. The work provides evidence that the restriction of land ownership rights took place long before Peter's reforms. The data demonstrating rather weak development of the land market in the first half of the XVIII century are given. The article concludes that most of the reforms undertaken during the reign of Peter the Great were a continuation of the trend of previous periods consisting in property rights restricting for both landowners and peasants..

The usual image of Peter I in the current public opinion is the great Russian emperor, who carried out a deep modernization of Russia, borrowing the best examples of Western culture, created a fleet, built a new capital of Russia — St. Petersburg, won a some of major military victories. Nevertheless, many historians assess the achievements of Peter the Great as very controversial: the location of the new capital was chosen very poorly, a sharp increase in tax exemptions repeatedly led to famine in the empire, which, in turn, led to a reduction in the population in the old Russian lands. Subsequently, part of the expensive fleet subsequently rotted, too large an army had to be reduced, the capital returned to Moscow for a while. The sharp strengthening of absolutism was accompanied by an increase in the enslavement of the peasants. Cultural innovations, including education, extended only to a very narrow layer of noble children. The backward class institutions hindered not only technological innovation, but also the freedom of enterprise. The adoption of the Table of Ranks exacerbated the problem of the “principal — agent” relationship, which was accompanied not only by the growth of corruption and favoritism, but also emergence of the dichotomy “rich state — poor population”, which has since become traditional for Russia. Therefore, in the light of the analysis from the standpoint of the new political economy, the assessment of the reforms of Peter the Great looks rather negative, the contribution of this politician looks incomparable both with the achievements of Alexei Mikhailovich “The Quietest” and with the reforms of Alexander II “The Liberator”. However, these statesmen are hardly present in contemporary Russian public opinion. This paradox is revealed in the article through the use of tools of political theology — Peter the Great is a necessary figure in the modern liberal-patriotic “civil religion”, while Alexander II, on the contrary, is associated with the “guilt complex” of the Russian intelligentsia, and his reforms must be characterized in a negative way. This largely predetermines the presets of modern researchers. At the same time, the sacredness of the image.

The system of job positions and ranks, which is currently in operation in modern civil service in Russia, is similar to the Table of ranks introduced by Peter the Great in 1722. This article studies the evolution of this institution, exploring its advantages and disadvantages. The Table of ranks, being a part of Peter the Great’s project of modernization, played an important role in organizing civil service. Civil servant’s career was determined by the length of service, merits and education. Originally, ranks coincided with job positions, but by the end of the XVIII century they diverged, with the length of service becoming a priority for job promotion. The XIX century saw an increase in the number of civil servants and gradual decrease in the share of the nobility in the total number of civil servants. During this period there were several attempts, however unsuccessful, to reform or to cancel the system of ranks. In October 1917 the Bolsheviks cancelled all ranks and titles. In the Soviet period, ranks were established for diplomats and public prosecutors. The system of ranks was renewed in early XXI century with the Federal law on “State civil service in the Russian Federation” adopted in 2004 and several Presidential decrees issued later. In fact, it was a new Table of ranks which was very close to that of Peter the Great’ The number of ranks increased from 14 to 15, some of their names are nearly identical. However, the system of modern job positions is much more complicated than in XVIII century. So far, the correspondence between ranks and job positions is determined only for the top-level positions. The significance of the new Table of ranks for an effective civil service is still to be determined.

The theory of military revolution is known to describe the process of transformation of states in Early modern period with the appearance of armed with firearms regular armies. According to the Brian Downing model, this process consists of several successive steps. 1. The starting point in development is the medieval monarchy, where the power of the suzerain is limited to meetings (conditionally, “parliaments”), where aristocrats predominate, managing the resources of their land holdings. 2. The military revolution downgrades the value of chivalry and requires the creation of a large army of firearmswielding mercenary infantrymen. 3. Funding a new army requires the reallocation of resources to the detriment of the nobility. 4. “Parliaments” resist these demands, with the conflict between the monarchs and the nobility starting. 5. The new army ensures the victory of monarchs. 6. The monarchs abolish “parliaments” or deprive them of real powers that means the victory of absolutism. 7. Further, the victorious monarchs subjugate the nobility, taking away part of their resources. 8. Reforms start, with a new financial system created. 9. New bureaucracy is created, with commoners recruited for positions. 10. The nobility tries to fit into these new structures by taking office positions. The article focuses on testing the Downing model on the material of Peter I transformations and shows that Russian historical process of the second half of the 17th — early 18th centuries actually went through the ten steps mentioned above

In modern Russia Peter the Great, according to representative opinion polls, is considered to be the best figure in the entire history of the country, significantly outstripping in popularity even domestic politicians of the 20th–21st centuries. This very high “folk” reputation significantly contradicts the views of social scientists who see in Peter I not so much a successful national reformer, a “revolutionary on the throne”, but a despot unscrupulous in his means, who for centuries to come linked modernization of the country with increased state coercion and heavy wars. However, comparative approach shows that other countries of catching up development pattern in the XVIII–XX centuries followed as a rule not the path of evolutionary reform but that of radical reforms aimed primarily at strengthening the army. Peter's Russia stands out against this background only in that it was the first to choose “modernization for the sake of military victories” and therefore, since the time of Peter I, remained among the “great powers” despite constant socio-economic backwardness. The legitimacy of this choice can be substantiated with the help of a world-systems analysis that emphasizes the great role of national sovereignty for the success of catch-up modernization. In fact, Peter I chose the war with strong Sweden as a main lever of modernization and a way to radically change the “rules of the game” — not only to open direct trade between Russia and Western Europe, but also to include it in the “great powers”. The example of Peter the Great's reforms, which almost coincided with the Northern War, clearly shows that military mobilization can play the role of a “big push” in a country that is catching up, creating the prerequisites for all other qualitative transformations. At the same time, “modernization for the sake of victories” that took shape under Peter the Great initiated a trend that is dangerous for Russia as a country of catching up development, when its military successes hindered the seemingly unnecessary national modernization, with military failures stimulating it.

The article considers the reforms of Peter I from the standpoint of historical sociology and institutional economic theory with the aim to identify the features of Peter's modernization and its role in forming Russia’s path dependence, and this purpose is realized by comparing it with Stalin's modernization. The study rests on the division of modernization into two types: adaptation and westernization models. This division constitutes the methodological basis of the study and allows further use of comparative analysis in reviewing Peter’s and Stalin’s modernization. Peter's reforms are viewed as adaptive modernization: the 17th century formal institutions of Muscovy were replaced by imported (Western) ones, but at the same time basic components of the political system and political culture were preserved. The reforms resulted in a fully state-driven society and developed economy. Totalitarianism in Russia first took shape in the early 18th century. It combined the archaic institutions of Muscovy newly introduced imported ones. The latter strengthened autocratic rule, powerproperty as an institutional foundation of Russia. At the same time, cultural and everyday westernization was built into Peter's reforms. It subsequently became the basis of in-depth westernization in the form of the release of the nobility from compulsory service. A comparative analysis of the Peter’s and Stalin’s modernization showed that they have both common features and differences. Total nationalization of life, focus on militarization, despotism unite them. However, while Peter's modernization transformed the archaic society, Stalin's one revived the archaic in the place of westernized society of the early 20th century.

The scope of the personality of Peter the Great questions the logic of his large-scale reforms in practical terms. It began along with the war, coincided with the war, and in a number of key issues was determined by the need to wage the war, arm and supply the army, and restructure its management. Attention to his reforms is connected not so much with the anniversary of Peter I in 2022, but with the need to understand the historical path of Russia and to form the country's cultural code under the influence of his reforms. Starting with a humble goal of opening a “window to Europe”, after 1714 administrative reforms became more extensive and comprehensive. The logic of the reforms was determined not only by the aspiration to Europe and not by the teleology of creating an empire. It was more about the pragmatic need to use the window of opportunity to get out of the “ring track” of a vast forest power squeezed by three imperial (regardless of titles) neighbors of other faiths — Turkey, Poland and Sweden. The course and needs of the Northern War to a large extent determined the nature of the reforms, with the success in the war resulting in the formation of the empire. The paper formulates possible alternative ways of Russia's development at the turn of the 16th–17th centuries, uses the methodology inherent in the new institutional economic school to compare discrete structural alternatives that stand in the way of the country and the hero of the article at two critical time points. The reforms outcomes and the war gave the country a chance for development, though a large-scale transition to more mature European socio-economic institutions could not be implemented in this short period and under war conditions.

This paper examines the specifics of interdisciplinary synthesis in modern social sciences. The author argues that currently economists do not “intervene” on to the “territory” of adjacent social sciences but rather export concepts from their disciplines into economics. The article reveals the reasons for the decline in the interest of social scientists in “grand theories” and highlights the factors that conditioned the rise of the so-called quantitative turn in social sciences. The author demonstrates the correlation between the empirical turn in social sciences and the promotion of interdisciplinarity. The analysis allows to state that the main driver enhancing the dialogue between representatives of various scientific fields is the growing unity of the analytical toolkit used by scholars. As a result, more and more researchers identify themselves through the analytical methods they use. Drawing on the papers prepared by the participants of the conference “Paradoxes of Peter the Great’s reforms: lessons for the economy of modern Russia”, held at the Faculty of Economics of Lomonosov Moscow State University on September 21, 2022 and formed this issue of Lomonosov Economics Journal, the author examines the manifestations of interdisciplinary approach in Russian social sciences. It has been identified that, unlike their international colleagues, Russian social scientists are united not so much by common analytical toolkit, but by the desire to fit their research into a broad theoretical framework, which over the past decades is represented by diverse types of institutionalism.

Growing tension around Russia in the global economy, the need to reorient foreign trade flows to countries that differ from Russia in cultural and religious aspects, as well as a growing number of publications aimed at studying economic effects of culture, religion and trust, makes it necessary to conduct a comprehensive analysis of scientific literature on the influence of culture and religion on foreign trade activities. Based on the analysis of religious literature and scientific empirical research and using the methods of systematization, generalization, meta-analysis, conceptual approaches of socio-cultural anthropology and cross-cultural psychology, the paper proposes a theoretical justification for the mechanism of the influence of religion and culture on foreign trade. Two approaches to the influence of culture on foreign trade activity are theoretically substantiated. Within the framework of the first approach, the proximity of cultural values contributes to the growth of foreign trade activity. Within the second framework, cultural openness and tolerance for foreign cultures have limited potential to increase mutual trade. Based on the analysis of scientific and religious literature, three groups of channels of the mechanism of the influence of religion on foreign trade are substantiated. The first group of channels, which are based on a person's psychological perception of God and His deeds, includes: influence through the perception of entrepreneurial risk as God's providence and impact through the fear of trading partners before God's punishment for non-fulfillment of obligations. The second group of channels, the mechanism of influence of which is based on the similarity and difference of religious dogmas, includes: influence based on different religious dogmas, influence through the trust of trading partners due to the similarity of religious values and influence through religious openness and tolerance towards other faiths. The third group of channels, the mechanism of which is based on institutional theories, includes: influence through the development of religious competition, the influence of religious institutions as an alternative to weak state institutions and the influence of religion as the basis of trust between trading partners.

The article discusses the current problems of the development of organic products market. The theoretical part notes the need to diversify agricultural production not only to maintain income and reduce risks, but also to support soil fertility and high yields, which can also be carried out during the transition to organic farming, when the farmer reduces the level of chemicalization of production in order to reduce externalities. The section of the agricultural policy review analyzes the main factors contributing to the development of organic products market, which include the development of a regulatory framework that creates certain rules and characteristics of organic products, as well as various kinds of subsidies that help both support the production of this type of product and consolidate a certain niche in the market for organic products. The study finds that despite high growth rates of organic market in many developed countries, the profitability of such projects as well as the complexity of the transition from traditional technologies to organic farming is debatable.

The article presents a methodology for analyzing the ESG efficiency of Russian cities. According to the authors, ESG assessment of cities is advisable not only when making management decisions, but also when choosing priority projects to improve the quality of life of residents. The purpose of the article is to test the methodology for determining priority projects needed for implementation in Russian cities, taking into account the ESG criterion, as well as to demonstrate a system for ranking cities according to ESG efficiency criteria. The article focuses on the comparison of existing ESG analysis tools of cities. The authors use the methodology of the ESG Index of the VEB.RF as the main tool. The advantage of this Index is determined by its focus on Russian cities. Open database also combines objective and subjective indicators. The article examines the ESG indicators of Yekaterinburg, Pskov and Taganrog. The authors demonstrate that programs for modernization and creation of urban electric transport systems and programs for the construction of social facilities most effectively stimulate the improvement of urban ESG environment and contribute to the sustainable development of Yekaterinburg, Pskov and Taganrog. The ESG rating of Russian cities is presented in the article.

The reorientation of Russian tourist flows to domestic destinations under the influence of the COVID-19 pandemic and the aggravation of the geopolitical situation creates opportunities for expanding the supply in the domestic tourist market. Cooperation between regions and cities in the development and promotion of new tour routes and brands, as well as the joining of new participants to existing formats of joint branding, is becoming relevant. Meanwhile, influence of branding on tourism development indicators in literature is still insufficiently covered, with practically no studies measuring the effects of cobranding cities. The purpose of this study is to explore the impact of the participation of cities in the cobranding association on tourist flows to these cities. The authors focus on the activities of brand managers in creating and communicating city brands, while the tourist flow indicator evaluate the activities results. In the framework of the empirical study, a quantitative comparative analysis of two groups of cities was carried out (group 1 — cities included in the Golden Ring cobranding association, group 2 — cities with similar characteristics, but branded independently). The analysis shows a significant correlation between branding and tourist flows in group 1. At the same time, no such relationship is found for group 2. Thus, the findings suggest that there is a real influence of cobranding strategies on the tourist flows of cities. The results of the study may be a tool to substantiate the feasibility of cities' participation in cobranding associations, which makes it possible to increase the effectiveness of promoting tourist brands of all participating cities.

The article considers the relationship between the consumer’s emotional state and impulse purchases. The authors analyze the effects of the consumer’s impulse behavior on buying food products. According to numerous studies of consumer behavior conducted in Russia, the share of purchases defined as impulse purchases has been steadily increasing. Insufficient understanding of the specifics and nature of impulse purchases may negatively affect both consumers’ well-being, including their psychological and financial state and companies’ financial sustainability in the long term. The article aims to improve understanding of consumer behavior in Russia and identify the relationship between the consumer’s emotional state and impulse purchases of food products. Previous research into the topic has allowed the authors to form understanding of impulse purchases and systematize factors influencing them. The effect of consumer’s emotional state on impulse purchases of food products has also been described. An empirical study including a series of in-depth interviews and a quantitative survey forms the basis for the present research. To identify the relationship between the consumer’s emotional state and impulse purchases of food products in Russia the structural equation modeling method is applied. The result of testing are reveal several alternative models, differences in the patterns of impulse buying behavior of female and male respondents. The research confirms that negative emotions significantly affect sensitivity to visual characteristics of products, impulsivity, and unplanned purchasing with both female and male consumers. Positive emotions, in contrast, demonstrate statistical significance with men solely. These findings can be explained by the consumer’s desire to reduce emotional tension and improve emotional state. The article provides a basis for further research into emotionally driven consumer behavior and improve predictability of purchasing behavior.

The article examines the competition between Russian and foreign manufacturers of road construction equipment in Russia. The subject of the research is strategies for the transformation of business models of manufacturing enterprises in developing countries and emerging markets under the influence of multinational corporations. The methodological basis of the research includes theoretical provisions of strategic management, concepts of business models and economics of industry markets. The paper defines business model transformation strategies based on the application of the co-evolutionary concept of innovation in the business models of companies in developing countries by O. Michalache and H. Volberd, methods of economic statistics and one-factor analysis of variance. The authors put forward and test the hypothesis that international cooperation with foreign companies increases the competitiveness of Russian manufacturers of road construction equipment. Calculations in the SPSS program show that companies outside international cooperation have low market share indicators. Average competitive positions in the road construction equipment market are typical for companies importing parts and components from leading foreign manufacturers. Companies that have established joint ventures with foreign partners or acquired licenses for the production of road construction equipment from foreign manufacturers have achieved the best indicators of competitiveness in the Russian market. The most successful Russian companies have chosen a strategy for adapting the business models of foreign enterprises. This research is of practical importance for the formation of a business model and competitive strategy of Russian companies in conditions of sanctions isolation from the technologies of developed countries and the growth of imports from developing countries.

The development of the pharmaceutical industry is inextricably linked with the development of new types of drugs, the introduction of new technologies, the provision of scientific research in bioengineering and biotechnology, which can be ensured through the continuous development of intellectual capital. Intellectual capital is a capacious and ambiguous concept that, other things equal, is explained by the presence of professional skills and competencies of employees that cannot be separated from them and, therefore, are reflected in the financial statements. For a long time, researchers have been evaluating the impact of intellectual capital on the performance and value of companies in various sectors of economy. This article attempts to look at the problem more broadly by adding the factors inherent in sustainable development and competitive advantages of the company: business model and business strategy to the traditional elements of intellectual capital. The purpose of the work is to assess the impact of business strategy, business model and intellectual capital components on the performance of pharmaceutical companies in Russia. The object of the study is the financial and non-financial reporting of Russian pharmaceutical companies. The subject is establishing the relationship between the disclosure of information on intellectual capital and financial performance, taking into account the business strategy and business model of the company. The methodological basis is the statistical and economic method, namely, the regression of panel data with fixed effects. The results show that most large companies in pharmaceutical sector adhere to the business strategy of “analyzers” and choose the business model of producers of their own drugs. The findings indicate no connection between the company's business strategy and business model and the performance of pharmaceutical companies. Elements of IC have been established that provide competitive advantages for the company in pharmaceutical industry.